FIGURE 4: Amelioration of hypothalamic inflammation, ER stress and gliosis after VSG. After VSG, activation of FXR/TGR5 in hypothalamic neurons from the rise in circulating bile acids, and GLP-1 receptors in hypothalamic glial cells from the rise in circulating GLP-1, may contribute to amelioration of inflammatory processes, ER stress, gliosis and leptin resistance in obesity, thereby potentially contributing to reduced food intake and lasting weight loss. FXR – farnesoid X receptor, GLP-1 – glucagon-like peptide 1, ObR – leptin receptor, MCP-1 – monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, TGR5 – Takeda G-protein 5 receptor, TLR4 – toll-like receptor 4, TNF-alpha – tumor necrosis factor alpha, VSG – vertical sleeve gastrectomy.